Fig. 2

Examples of implantable neural interfaces that have been implanted in humans. Some of these technologies have market approval for clinical use, some are used clinically off-label, while many others are under investigation in academia and in industry and are limited to clinical trials. References: Deep brain stimulation: (Drobisz and Damborská, 2019; Kalia et al. 2013; Kogan et al. 2019; Li and Cook 2018; Rapinesi et al. 2019; Wang et al. 2018); Electrocorticography: (Berger and Ojemann 1992; Leuthardt et al. 2004); Depth electrodes: (Krusienski and Shih 2011; Lehongre et al. 2022); Intracortical electrode array: (Ajiboye et al. 2017; Barry et al. 2023; Collinger et al. 2013; Deo et al. 2024; Drew 2024; Flesher et al. 2021; Hosman et al. 2023; Rastogi et al. 2021; Willett et al. 2023, 2021); Endovascular electrode array: (Mitchell et al. 2023; Oxley et al. 2020); Epidural spinal cord stimulation (Angeli et al. 2018; Barolat et al. 1988; Bose et al. 2025, 2024; Capogrosso et al. 2024; Carhart et al. 2004; Chandrasekaran et al. 2020; Darrow et al. 2019; Dekopov et al. 2015; Gill et al. 2018; Goodwin et al. 2023; Harkema et al. 2018; Iversen et al. 2024; Nanivadekar et al. 2023; Pinter et al. 2000; Powell et al. 2022; Raslan et al. 2007; Richardson and McLone 1978; Shealy et al. 1967; Singh et al. 2023; Squair et al. 2021; Tator et al. 2012; Wagner et al. 2018); Cochlear implant: (Shepherd et al. 2013; Zeng et al. 2008); Retinal prosthesis: (Ayton et al. 2014; Christie et al. 2022a; Gregori et al. 2016); Vagus nerve stimulation (Austelle et al. 2022; Dawson et al. 2021; De Ferrari et al. 2011; Dibué-Adjei et al. 2019; Koopman et al. 2016; Kosel et al. 2011; LivaNova 2023; Rush et al. 2005; Sinniger et al. 2020); Dorsal root ganglion stimulation: (Deer et al. 2019; Liem et al. 2013; Sverrisdottir et al. 2020); Peripheral nerve stimulation: (Charkhkar et al. 2018; Gan et al. 2012; George et al. 2019; Goree et al. 2024; Raspopovic et al. 2014; Tan et al. 2014); Functional electrical stimulation: (Chaplin 1996; Hardin et al. 2007; Kobetic et al. 1999; Makowski et al. 2021; Peckham et al. 2001); Intramuscular electromyography: (Hart et al. 2011; Heald et al. 2019; Page et al. 2018); Intraspinal microstimulation: (Nashold et al. 1981, 1972); Sacral nerve stimulation (Hull et al. 2013; Sukhu et al. 2016; Tanagho et al. 1989)